What is forensic Science? It is the application of science to the criminal and civic laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system. History Mathieu Orfila - toxicology, 1814 first publication on the detection of poisons Alphonse Bertillon - 1879, anthropometry, one person from another through body measurements Francis Galton - 1892, first study of fingerprint Leone Lattes - 1901, grouped blood into different categories Calvin Goddard - ballistics, exam by comparison microscope Albert Osborn - 1910, Questioned Documents, first significant text Walter McCrone - combined the microscope with analytical methods Hans Gross - 1893, first text on the use of scientific principles in criminal investigation Edmond Locard - founder of the Institute of Criminalistics “whenever two objects come into contact with each other there is an exchange of material” 1858 Sir William Herschel used fingerprints on native contracts 1870's, Dr. Henry Faulds took up the study of "skin-furrows” 1892 Sir Francis Galton calculated the odds of two individual fingerprints being the same were 1 in 64 billion 1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentine Police Official made the first criminal fingerprint identification 1902 in England a Henry Jackson was found guilty of burglary on fingerprint evidence 1902 a double murder was committed in Deptford, just outside London. The only evidence at the crime scene was a fingerprint. Forensic Science was born and fingerprints led the way. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Sherlock Holmes “after you have eliminated all the possibilities, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth” Law and Criminalistics Frye v. United States 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923) Frye was convicted of the crime of murder in the second degree based on a lie detector test The theory seems to be that truth is spontaneous, and comes without conscious effort, while the utterance of a falsehood requires a conscious effort Prior to the trial defendant was subjected to this deception test, and counsel offered the scientist who conducted the test as an expert to testify to the results obtained Counsel for defendant, correctly stated in their brief that no cases directly related to this procedure have been found, no precedents The appeal was upheld The was no validity to the test All test must be scientifically sound and sufficiently established Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals  (92-102), 509 U.S. 579 (1993). Petitioners Jason Daubert and Eric Schuller are minor children born with serious birth defects They and their parents alleged that the birth defects had been caused by the mothers' ingestion of Bendectin, a prescription anti nausea drug marketed by respondent. Merrell Dow The U.S. Supreme (1993) rejected the Frye test for the admissibility of scientific evidence Instead of "general acceptance" in the scientific community, the new test requires an independent judicial assessment of reliability The Daubert decision involved the claim that Bendectin caused birth defects, and even though it was intended to clear the way for admitting novel scientific evidence (like DNA), it has instead turned out to be a firestorm of controversy. It is the federal judge's sole responsibility to act as a "gatekeeper" to ensure that the testimony is well-grounded and therefore designated reliable scientific knowledge Court Guidelines The scientific technique or theory can be tested Has the technique or theory been subjected to peer review and publication The technique’s potential rate of error Existence of standards that control the technique’s operation Has the technique or theory attracted widespread acceptance in the scientific community Kumho Tire Co. V Carmichael A tire on the vehicle driven by Patrick Carmichael blew out and the vehicle overturned, one passenger died and the others were injured. The survivors and the decedent’s representative, brought suit against the tire’s maker and its distributor claiming that the tire that failed was defective They rested their case in significant part upon the depositions of a tire failure analyst, Dennis Carlson, Jr., who intended to testify that, a defect in the tire’s manufacture or design caused the blow out. Kumho Tire moved to exclude Carlson’s testimony on the ground that his methodology failed to satisfy Federal Rule of Evidence 702, which says: “If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact … , a witness qualified as an expert … may testify thereto in the form of an opinion.” Granting the motion (and entering summary judgment for the defendants), the District Court acknowledged that it should act as a reliability “gatekeeper” under Daubert v. Merrell Dow The Supreme Court found insufficient indications of the reliability of Carlson’s methodology. The Daubert factors may apply to the testimony of engineers and other experts who are not scientists The Daubert “gatekeeping” obligation applies not only to “scientific” testimony, but to all expert testimony Vary from State to State 50% Daubert 50% Frye But it is still up to the trial judge Ethics Forensic science is the product of an uneasy and unholy mating of Science The objective seeker of truth and knowledge Forensics, the argumentative persuader of courtroom advocacy The advocates of forensic science rarely understand its appeal They cannot fathom a search for truth in a game plan which calls for scores and trophies. They are constantly trying to persuade us to see it their way, to compromise, to bend just a little. They don't realize it, but what the advocates are asking for is Bad Science The scientist would cut off one of the ant's legs and shout, "Jump!" And the ant would jump. The scientist cut off a second leg, told the ant to jump, and again the ant jumped. And so it went, until the scientist had cut off all six of the ant's legs. This time, when told to jump, the ant did not jump. This proves it, the scientist concluded: when you chop all the legs off an ant, the ant goes deaf! This proves it, the scientist concluded: when you chop all the legs off an ant, the ant goes deaf! Chemist's Code of Conduct Chemists have a professional responsibly to serve the public interest and welfare and to further knowledge of science. Chemists should actively be concerned with the health and welfare of co-workers, consumer and the community. Public comments on scientific matters should be made with care and precision, without unsubstantiated, exaggerated, or premature statements Chemists should seek to advance chemical science, understand the limitations of their knowledge, and respect the truth Conflicts of interest and scientific misconduct, such as fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism, and incompatible with this Code Misinterpretation of Test Results In a robbery case the victim, a bartender, testifies that the defendant had come into the tavern earlier in the night for a glass of beer. Three unwashed glasses were found at the scene and were processed for latent prints. Two of the glasses yielded prints, but these were of persons unknown, not the defendant The prosecutor suggests that the print examiner testify that the third beer glass must have been used and then wiped clean by the defendant, because the other two glasses were obviously not his. The print examiner suggests that the prosecutor look elsewhere for this kind of testimony The prosecutor looks surprised Forensic Science Services Physical Science Unit Chemistry, physics, geology as applied to the identification of crime scene evidence Biology Unit Biochemistry, biology and botany DNA processing Firearms Unit Firearms examination involves the identifying characteristics between firearm and projectile,projectile and target. Typically, this includes matching bullets to the gun that fired them. Toolmark identification involves the identifying characteristics between tools, such as a prybar, and the object on which it is used, such as a door frame. Also included in the category are explosives and imprint evidence. Document Examination Unit This discipline involves all special relationships that may exist between document and inscription and how it relates to a person or sequence of events. This includes forgery, counterfeiting, handwriting analysis and other related sub-disciplines Photography Unit Basic techniques of photography as they apply to investigative work Forensic Psychiatry and Profiling The first category involves mental illness and disorder, what creates mental illness and disorder, and its diagnosis and treatment. The other category involves profiling, in which an investigator can examine certain crime scenes to come up with a personality profile of the offender Identification The name is self-explanatory. This involves how an individual can be identified to the exclusion, or at least to the smallest percentage of the population, of all others. Includes fingerprints, dna analysis, odontology, and a number of other sub-disciplines Criminal Law Criminal Law serves to define offenses under a codified system of laws and punishments. Basically, it is where we define what a crime is and how it goes about being prosecuted Crime Scene Processing. This includes all aspects of forensic science and how they come together when searching a crime scene, collecting evidence, tagging and bagging evidence, and analyzing evidence in the lab SPECIALTIES Forensic Anthropologists - The forensic anthropologist examines the victims bones to determine a number of key facts. Information such as gender, age, looks, previous trauma, and disease can all be found. The forensic anthropologist is often of key relevance to the identification of remains. They use a number of means, including molecular DNA analysis Forensic Artist The forensic artist provides an elaborate sketch of the offender. This process is undertaken via the information from an eyewitness. Many investigators now use computer programs to develop offender renditions Sketches for court Ballistics Experts Ballistic experts focus on the functioning of firearms. Via microscopic analysis they can match up bullets with a particular weapon. They also provide key information about the projectiles path Forensic Chemists The forensic chemist studies the molecular aspects of the crime scene. They can match fibers, paint, and dyes to particular objects. They will identify relevant chemicals and particles Dactyloscopy This is the scientific analysis of fingerprints. Fingerprint experts have been involved with law enforcement for almost a hundred years. Recent advances in dactyloscopy have continued to make fingerprint analysis of key importance (i.e., new methods pull fingerprints off underwater surfaces, skin, etc.). Forensic Dentists/Odontologists These experts serve a identification function. Via the analysis of a corpses teeth and previous dental records they can make a positive identification. They also will analyze bite patterns so that they can identify who was eating a particular meal or even who bit somebody Forensic Entomologists The entomologist studies insects. A number of pieces of key information can be discovered from this analysis. The rate of body decay via insects can directly correlate to time of death. The presence of certain insects can identify previous dump sites, etc Forensic Geologists The forensic geologist can determine where a person or object has been by analyzing soil samples. Soil can be found on a pair of shoes, tire treads, or a body. They can be matched up with common soil types to predict quite specifically where the object/person has been Forensic Linguists The forensic linguist analyses either the spoken or written word. They can identify whether a message was presented by the same individual, what the individuals underlying intent is, the individuals educational and cultural background, as well as the presence of pathology Forensic Photographer The crime scene photographer attempts to record every component of the crime scene via photograph. They depict the scene from multiple angles, using multi-functional cameras, and through the consistent evaluation of size and distance Forensic Sculptors Like the forensic artist, the sculptor attempts to create an image of either an offender or a victim. The sculptor's goal is to create a three dimensional version of the image Forensic Serologist The serologist studies blood and other bodily fluids for identification purposes. The serologist is often involved in DNA fingerprinting (the identification of an individual based on body cells) Forensic Pathologist The forensic pathologist analyzes the remains of a body. They attempt to determine the cause and time of death via autopsy. 5 Categories Natural Homicide Suicide Accident Unclassified Stages of Decomposition Rigor mortis - muscles relax and then become rigid without shortening the muscle Manifests in first 24 hours, disappearing in 36 hours Livor mortis - heart stops and the blood settles to the parts of the body closest to the ground Continues for up to 12 hours Skin appears as dark blue or purple The skin does not appear discolored where it is constricted or pressing against an object Useful to determine if the body has been moved Algor mortis - the process by which the body temperature continues to cool The rate is influenced by many factors Location and size of body, clothing, weather General rule is that the body loses 1 to 1.5 degrees F° per hour What is time of death important Determining the time of death is extremely difficult, and accuracy is impossible It can substantiate alibis or break them Through Algor mortis we get a rough approximation of the time of death It is used to construct a "bracket of probability", giving an earliest and latest time that death could have occurred Establishing the times of an assault and death has a direct bearing on the legal questions of alibi and opportunity Another Method Comparing the occurrence of events which took place at known times with the time of occurrence of the event under investigation. For example, a wrist watch stopped by a blow during an assault, The extent of digestion of the last known meal The amount of food in the stomach can help estimate the time of the last meal since there is a rate of digestion The stomach contents not only help can establish but where Knowing where can assist in time and with who Another method Potassium levels in the ocular fluid (vitreous humor) After death potassium is released into the ocular fluid from the eyeball By analyzing the rate at which the potassium enters the ocular fluid the pathologist can estimate the time of death Home

What is forensic Science?

1. It is the application of science to the criminal and civic laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.
History

Mathieu Orfila - toxicology, 1814 first publication on the detection of poisons
Alphonse Bertillon - 1879, anthropometry, one person from another through body measurements
Francis Galton - 1892, first study of fingerprint
Leone Lattes - 1901, grouped blood into different categories
Calvin Goddard - ballistics, exam by comparison microscope
Albert Osborn - 1910, Questioned Documents, first significant text
Walter McCrone - combined the microscope with analytical methods
Hans Gross - 1893, first text on the use of scientific principles in criminal investigation
Edmond Locard - founder of the Institute of Criminalistics “whenever two objects come into contact with each other there is an exchange of material”
1858 Sir William Herschel used fingerprints on native contracts
1870's, Dr. Henry Faulds took up the study of "skin-furrows”
1892 Sir Francis Galton calculated the odds of two individual fingerprints being the same were 1 in 64 billion
1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentine Police Official made the first criminal fingerprint identification
1902 in England a Henry Jackson was found guilty of burglary on fingerprint evidence
1902 a double murder was committed in Deptford, just outside London. The only evidence at the crime scene was a fingerprint. Forensic Science was born and fingerprints led the way.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Sherlock Holmes “after you have eliminated all the possibilities, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth”

Law and Criminalistics

Frye v. United States
293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923)

1. Frye was convicted of the crime of murder in the second degree based on a lie detector test
2. The theory seems to be that truth is spontaneous, and comes without conscious effort, while the utterance of a falsehood requires a conscious effort
3. Prior to the trial defendant was subjected to this deception test, and counsel offered the scientist who conducted the test as an expert to testify to the results obtained
4. Counsel for defendant, correctly stated in their brief that no cases directly related to this procedure have been found, no precedents
5. The appeal was upheld
6. The was no validity to the test
7. All test must be scientifically sound and sufficiently established
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals
(92-102), 509 U.S. 579 (1993).

Petitioners Jason Daubert and Eric Schuller are minor children born with serious birth defects
They and their parents alleged that the birth defects had been caused by the mothers' ingestion of Bendectin, a prescription anti nausea drug marketed by respondent. Merrell Dow

The U.S. Supreme (1993) rejected the Frye test for the admissibility of scientific evidence
Instead of "general acceptance" in the scientific community, the new test requires an independent judicial assessment of reliability
The Daubert decision involved the claim that Bendectin caused birth defects, and even though it was intended to clear the way for admitting novel scientific evidence (like DNA), it has instead turned out to be a firestorm of controversy.
It is the federal judge's sole responsibility to act as a "gatekeeper" to ensure that the testimony is well-grounded and therefore designated reliable scientific knowledge

Court Guidelines

The scientific technique or theory can be tested
Has the technique or theory been subjected to peer review and publication
The technique’s potential rate of error
Existence of standards that control the technique’s operation
Has the technique or theory attracted widespread acceptance in the scientific community

Kumho Tire Co. V Carmichael

A tire on the vehicle driven by Patrick Carmichael blew out and the vehicle overturned, one passenger died and the others were injured.
The survivors and the decedent’s representative, brought suit against the tire’s maker and its distributor claiming that the tire that failed was defective
They rested their case in significant part upon the depositions of a tire failure analyst, Dennis Carlson, Jr., who intended to testify that, a defect in the tire’s manufacture or design caused the blow out.
Kumho Tire moved to exclude Carlson’s testimony on the ground that his methodology failed to satisfy Federal Rule of Evidence 702, which says: “If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact … , a witness qualified as an expert … may testify thereto in the form of an opinion.”
Granting the motion (and entering summary judgment for the defendants), the District Court acknowledged that it should act as a reliability “gatekeeper” under Daubert v. Merrell Dow
The Supreme Court found insufficient indications of the reliability of Carlson’s methodology.
The Daubert factors may apply to the testimony of engineers and other experts who are not scientists
The Daubert “gatekeeping” obligation applies not only to “scientific” testimony, but to all expert testimony
Vary from State to State
50% Daubert 50% Frye
But it is still up to the trial judge

Ethics

Forensic science is the product of an uneasy and unholy mating of Science
The objective seeker of truth and knowledge
Forensics, the argumentative persuader of courtroom advocacy
The advocates of forensic science rarely understand its appeal
They cannot fathom a search for truth in a game plan which calls for scores and trophies.
They are constantly trying to persuade us to see it their way, to compromise, to bend just a little.
They don't realize it, but what the advocates are asking for is Bad Science
The scientist would cut off one of the ant's legs and shout, "Jump!" And the ant would jump. The scientist cut off a second leg, told the ant to jump, and again the ant jumped. And so it went, until the scientist had cut off all six of the ant's legs. This time, when told to jump, the ant did not jump. This proves it, the scientist concluded: when you chop all the legs off an ant, the ant goes deaf!
This proves it, the scientist concluded: when you chop all the legs off an ant, the ant goes deaf!

Chemist's Code of Conduct

Chemists have a professional responsibly to serve the public interest and welfare and to further knowledge of science.
Chemists should actively be concerned with the health and welfare of co-workers, consumer and the community.
Public comments on scientific matters should be made with care and precision, without unsubstantiated, exaggerated, or premature statements
Chemists should seek to advance chemical science, understand the limitations of their knowledge, and respect the truth
Conflicts of interest and scientific misconduct, such as fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism, and incompatible with this Code

Misinterpretation of Test Results

In a robbery case the victim, a bartender, testifies that the defendant had come into the tavern earlier in the night for a glass of beer.
Three unwashed glasses were found at the scene and were processed for latent prints. Two of the glasses yielded prints, but these were of persons unknown, not the defendant
The prosecutor suggests that the print examiner testify that the third beer glass must have been used and then wiped clean by the defendant, because the other two glasses were obviously not his.
The print examiner suggests that the prosecutor look elsewhere for this kind of testimony
The prosecutor looks surprised

Forensic Science Services

Physical Science Unit

1. Chemistry, physics, geology as applied to the identification of crime scene evidence
Biology Unit

Biochemistry, biology and botany
DNA processing

Firearms Unit

Firearms examination involves the identifying characteristics between firearm and projectile,projectile and target. Typically, this includes matching bullets to the gun that fired them.
Toolmark identification involves the identifying characteristics between tools, such as a prybar, and the object on which it is used, such as a door frame. Also included in the category are explosives and imprint evidence.

Document Examination Unit

This discipline involves all special relationships that may exist between document and inscription and how it relates to a person or sequence of events. This includes forgery, counterfeiting, handwriting analysis and other related sub-disciplines

Photography Unit

Basic techniques of photography as they apply to investigative work

Forensic Psychiatry and Profiling

The first category involves mental illness and disorder, what creates mental illness and disorder, and its diagnosis and treatment.
The other category involves profiling, in which an investigator can examine certain crime scenes to come up with a personality profile of the offender

Identification

The name is self-explanatory. This involves how an individual can be identified to the exclusion, or at least to the smallest percentage of the population, of all others. Includes fingerprints, dna analysis, odontology, and a number of other sub-disciplines

Criminal Law

Criminal Law serves to define offenses under a codified system of laws and punishments.
Basically, it is where we define what a crime is and how it goes about being prosecuted

Crime Scene Processing.

This includes all aspects of forensic science and how they come together when searching a crime scene, collecting evidence, tagging and bagging evidence, and analyzing evidence in the lab

SPECIALTIES

Forensic Anthropologists -
The forensic anthropologist examines the victims bones to determine a number of key facts. Information such as gender, age, looks, previous trauma, and disease can all be found. The forensic anthropologist is often of key relevance to the identification of remains. They use a number of means, including molecular DNA analysis

Forensic Artist

The forensic artist provides an elaborate sketch of the offender. This process is undertaken via the information from an eyewitness. Many investigators now use computer programs to develop offender renditions
Sketches for court

Ballistics Experts

Ballistic experts focus on the functioning of firearms. Via microscopic analysis they can match up bullets with a particular weapon. They also provide key information about the projectiles path

Forensic Chemists

The forensic chemist studies the molecular aspects of the crime scene. They can match fibers, paint, and dyes to particular objects. They will identify relevant chemicals and particles

Dactyloscopy

This is the scientific analysis of fingerprints. Fingerprint experts have been involved with law enforcement for almost a hundred years. Recent advances in dactyloscopy have continued to make fingerprint analysis of key importance (i.e., new methods pull fingerprints off underwater surfaces, skin, etc.).

Forensic Dentists/Odontologists

These experts serve a identification function. Via the analysis of a corpses teeth and previous dental records they can make a positive identification. They also will analyze bite patterns so that they can identify who was eating a particular meal or even who bit somebody

Forensic Entomologists

The entomologist studies insects. A number of pieces of key information can be discovered from this analysis. The rate of body decay via insects can directly correlate to time of death. The presence of certain insects can identify previous dump sites, etc

Forensic Geologists

The forensic geologist can determine where a person or object has been by analyzing soil samples. Soil can be found on a pair of shoes, tire treads, or a body. They can be matched up with common soil types to predict quite specifically where the object/person has been

Forensic Linguists

The forensic linguist analyses either the spoken or written word. They can identify whether a message was presented by the same individual, what the individuals underlying intent is, the individuals educational and cultural background, as well as the presence of pathology

Forensic Photographer

The crime scene photographer attempts to record every component of the crime scene via photograph. They depict the scene from multiple angles, using multi-functional cameras, and through the consistent evaluation of size and distance

Forensic Sculptors

Like the forensic artist, the sculptor attempts to create an image of either an offender or a victim. The sculptor's goal is to create a three dimensional version of the image

Forensic Serologist

The serologist studies blood and other bodily fluids for identification purposes. The serologist is often involved in DNA fingerprinting (the identification of an individual based on body cells)

Forensic Pathologist

The forensic pathologist analyzes the remains of a body. They attempt to determine the cause and time of death via autopsy.

5 Categories

Natural
Homicide
Suicide
Accident
Unclassified

Stages of Decomposition

Rigor mortis - muscles relax and then become rigid without shortening the muscle
Manifests in first 24 hours, disappearing in 36 hours

Livor mortis - heart stops and the blood settles to the parts of the body closest to the ground
Continues for up to 12 hours
Skin appears as dark blue or purple
The skin does not appear discolored where it is constricted or pressing against an object
Useful to determine if the body has been moved
Algor mortis - the process by which the body temperature continues to cool
The rate is influenced by many factors
Location and size of body, clothing, weather
General rule is that the body loses 1 to 1.5 degrees F° per hour
What is time of death important
Determining the time of death is extremely difficult, and accuracy is impossible
It can substantiate alibis or break them
Through Algor mortis we get a rough approximation of the time of death
It is used to construct a "bracket of probability", giving an earliest and latest time that death could have occurred
Establishing the times of an assault and death has a direct bearing on the legal questions of alibi and opportunity

Another Method

Comparing the occurrence of events which took place at known times with the time of occurrence of the event under investigation.
For example, a wrist watch stopped by a blow during an assault,
The extent of digestion of the last known meal
The amount of food in the stomach can help estimate the time of the last meal since there is a rate of digestion
The stomach contents not only help can establish but where
Knowing where can assist in time and with who

Another method

Potassium levels in the ocular fluid (vitreous humor)
After death potassium is released into the ocular fluid from the eyeball
By analyzing the rate at which the potassium enters the ocular fluid the pathologist can estimate the time of death
Home